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.In the same way that itis necessary to adapt the curriculum, methods and classroom organisationto meet the needs of gifted and talented students, it is also necessary tomake some modifications for students with difficulties.It is generally notnecessary to seek totally different or special methods for these studentsbecause the answer mainly lies in using existing instructional approacheswith greater intensity and precision.Ellis (2005, p.3) remarks that &teaching practices for those with learning difficulties need to be consideredin the context of the generally effective pedagogy.Several writers have surveyed the research evidence to discover whichmethods work most effectively for students with learning problems (e.g.,Carnine, Dixon & Silbert, 1998; Forness, Kavale, Blum & Lloyd, 1997;Swanson, 2000).The consensus of opinion indicates that these studentslearn best, particularly in academic subjects, when the teaching approach,in the beginning stages, is carefully structured and provides abundantopportunities for successful practice and application.Direct instructionalmethods, together with training in cognitive strategy use, have consistentlyproved to be the most effect approach.Swanson (2000, p.23) concludes:A combined direct instruction and strategy instruction model is aneffective procedure for remediating learning disabilities when comparedto other instructional models.The important instructional componentsthat primarily make up this model are: attention to sequence, drill-repetition-practice, segmenting information into parts, controlling oftask difficulty through prompts and cues, making use of technology, theteacher systematically modeling problem-solving steps, and making use ofsmall interactive groups.Some years earlier Lloyd (1988) had reached very similar conclusions.Lloydtells us research indicates that the most effective approaches for reducingstudent failure rates have tended to be:×% structured: characterised by a great deal of teacher direction in the initialstages of learning 46 TEACHI NG METHODS×% goal oriented: the students are clear about what is to be achieved×% with an emphasis on practice: new information and skills are repeated andapplied many times to ensure acquisition and maintenance×% with an emphasis on strategy training: students are taught how to attempt thetasks set for them×% independence oriented: although highly teacher-directed in the early stages,learners are expected to acquire knowledge and skills that will enable themlater to work independently.When looking at specific areas of the curriculum, several writers haveadvanced the proposition that current methods of teaching are not meetingthe needs of some students, and that students with learning difficultiesare put at risk.For example, in many countries, the teaching of readingover the past two decades has mainly been via the constructivist wholelanguage approach.This method does not favour the direct teaching ofphonics and word building, two essential component skills in both readingand spelling.As a consequence, many students with learning difficulties donot pick up the skills by incidental learning and remain struggling readerswith difficulties across the curriculum (e.g., Coltheart & Prior, 2006; Swan& Lyon, 2005).They make much better progress when taught by directmethods that explicitly teach decoding and comprehension strategies.Similarly, in the domain of arithmetic, some experts are questioningwhether problem-based approaches have gone too far, to the extent thatthrough lack of practice, children with learning difficulties are unable tocarry out routine calculations with speed and accuracy (e.g., Farkota, 2005;Kroesbergen et al., 2004).Even in areas like science, where investigativeapproaches are most strongly advocated, there are opinions emerging thatsome students need more explicit teaching, rather than discovery , if theyare to develop the necessary concepts (e.g., Klahr & Li, 2005; McCleery &Tindal, 1999; Whitman & Evans, 2006).The current position is that in most of the basic academic subjectsthe preferred model is a balanced program comprising direct teaching ofessential skills combined with the more functional, motivating and creativeelements of whole language and whole maths.Ellis (2005, p.46) concludes: Best practice is now recognised by classroom practitioners as the applyingof a combination of instructional approaches which best fit the studentsbeing taught.Best practice also suggests that accommodations and modi- TEACHI NG METHODS: SUI TABI L I TY FOR STUDENTS 47fications to curriculum content (differentiation) are needed to address therange of ability found in today s classrooms (e.g., Fahsl, 2007; Tomlinson,1996, 2003).Strategies for differentiation are discussed in chapter 5.Students with disabilitiesDoes teaching in a special school call for totally different teaching methods?What is special about special education? The answers to these two questionsdepend on several variables; for example, the type of disability a student has,the severity of that disability, and its impact on learning capacity.In somecases the teaching methods may be identical to those used in mainstreamschools, but in other cases modifications and additions are required.Students with physical disabilityStudents with physical disabilities comprise a relatively small but diversegroup.Their disabilities range from those that have little or no influenceon learning and development, through to other conditions that may involveneurological impairment affecting perception, cognition and movement [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]
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.In the same way that itis necessary to adapt the curriculum, methods and classroom organisationto meet the needs of gifted and talented students, it is also necessary tomake some modifications for students with difficulties.It is generally notnecessary to seek totally different or special methods for these studentsbecause the answer mainly lies in using existing instructional approacheswith greater intensity and precision.Ellis (2005, p.3) remarks that &teaching practices for those with learning difficulties need to be consideredin the context of the generally effective pedagogy.Several writers have surveyed the research evidence to discover whichmethods work most effectively for students with learning problems (e.g.,Carnine, Dixon & Silbert, 1998; Forness, Kavale, Blum & Lloyd, 1997;Swanson, 2000).The consensus of opinion indicates that these studentslearn best, particularly in academic subjects, when the teaching approach,in the beginning stages, is carefully structured and provides abundantopportunities for successful practice and application.Direct instructionalmethods, together with training in cognitive strategy use, have consistentlyproved to be the most effect approach.Swanson (2000, p.23) concludes:A combined direct instruction and strategy instruction model is aneffective procedure for remediating learning disabilities when comparedto other instructional models.The important instructional componentsthat primarily make up this model are: attention to sequence, drill-repetition-practice, segmenting information into parts, controlling oftask difficulty through prompts and cues, making use of technology, theteacher systematically modeling problem-solving steps, and making use ofsmall interactive groups.Some years earlier Lloyd (1988) had reached very similar conclusions.Lloydtells us research indicates that the most effective approaches for reducingstudent failure rates have tended to be:×% structured: characterised by a great deal of teacher direction in the initialstages of learning 46 TEACHI NG METHODS×% goal oriented: the students are clear about what is to be achieved×% with an emphasis on practice: new information and skills are repeated andapplied many times to ensure acquisition and maintenance×% with an emphasis on strategy training: students are taught how to attempt thetasks set for them×% independence oriented: although highly teacher-directed in the early stages,learners are expected to acquire knowledge and skills that will enable themlater to work independently.When looking at specific areas of the curriculum, several writers haveadvanced the proposition that current methods of teaching are not meetingthe needs of some students, and that students with learning difficultiesare put at risk.For example, in many countries, the teaching of readingover the past two decades has mainly been via the constructivist wholelanguage approach.This method does not favour the direct teaching ofphonics and word building, two essential component skills in both readingand spelling.As a consequence, many students with learning difficulties donot pick up the skills by incidental learning and remain struggling readerswith difficulties across the curriculum (e.g., Coltheart & Prior, 2006; Swan& Lyon, 2005).They make much better progress when taught by directmethods that explicitly teach decoding and comprehension strategies.Similarly, in the domain of arithmetic, some experts are questioningwhether problem-based approaches have gone too far, to the extent thatthrough lack of practice, children with learning difficulties are unable tocarry out routine calculations with speed and accuracy (e.g., Farkota, 2005;Kroesbergen et al., 2004).Even in areas like science, where investigativeapproaches are most strongly advocated, there are opinions emerging thatsome students need more explicit teaching, rather than discovery , if theyare to develop the necessary concepts (e.g., Klahr & Li, 2005; McCleery &Tindal, 1999; Whitman & Evans, 2006).The current position is that in most of the basic academic subjectsthe preferred model is a balanced program comprising direct teaching ofessential skills combined with the more functional, motivating and creativeelements of whole language and whole maths.Ellis (2005, p.46) concludes: Best practice is now recognised by classroom practitioners as the applyingof a combination of instructional approaches which best fit the studentsbeing taught.Best practice also suggests that accommodations and modi- TEACHI NG METHODS: SUI TABI L I TY FOR STUDENTS 47fications to curriculum content (differentiation) are needed to address therange of ability found in today s classrooms (e.g., Fahsl, 2007; Tomlinson,1996, 2003).Strategies for differentiation are discussed in chapter 5.Students with disabilitiesDoes teaching in a special school call for totally different teaching methods?What is special about special education? The answers to these two questionsdepend on several variables; for example, the type of disability a student has,the severity of that disability, and its impact on learning capacity.In somecases the teaching methods may be identical to those used in mainstreamschools, but in other cases modifications and additions are required.Students with physical disabilityStudents with physical disabilities comprise a relatively small but diversegroup.Their disabilities range from those that have little or no influenceon learning and development, through to other conditions that may involveneurological impairment affecting perception, cognition and movement [ Pobierz caÅ‚ość w formacie PDF ]